The Indus Valley: A Civilization Ahead of its Time

Till the beginning of the 20th century, it was believed that Indian history began with the Vedic period. But this myth was shattered with the discovery of Harappa city by Dayaram Sahni in 1921 and Mohenjo-Daro city by Rakhal Das Banerjee in 1922. The discovery of these sites proved that a developed civilization existed 3000 years ago in India near the Indus Valley, which is one of the oldest civilizations not only in India but in the whole world.

A civilization is a complex human society that may have certain characteristics of cultural and technological development.Indus civilization is related to the proto-historic period of Indian history. Significantly, we have literary sources available for the information of this period, but it has not been deciphered till yet.There is still a dispute among historians regarding the time period of the Harappan civilization, yet historians are unanimous in accepting the time from 2600 BC to 1700 BC as the developed period of the Harappan civilization. 

Harappan Civilization is also known as ‘Indus Valley Civilization’. It is worth noting that in the beginning the sites related to this civilization were discovered mainly located near the Indus Valley. But as other sites were discovered, we got many cities far away from the Indus Valley, due to which this civilization was recognized by the name of ‘Harappan Civilization’.The Harappan civilization is also called the Bronze Age civilization, because the people of this civilization were the first to use bronze. Bronze was made by mixing copper and tin by the people of this civilization. This civilization was contemporary to some of the oldest civilizations in the world such as the Mesopotamian Civilization, The Ancient Egyptian Civilization and the Syrian Civilization. At present, more than 1500 sites related to this civilization have been discovered and its estimated area is considered to be more than 13 lakh km. Which was 12 times more than the total area of ​​Mesopotamian and ancient Egyptian civilizations.

Stages of Development of Harappan Civilization

The development of any civilization is the result of a gradual process. In this sequence, the development of Harappan civilization also took place in several stages. Many historians agree on the view that the Harappan civilization started around 6000 BC during the Neolithic period itself. This civilization went through four phases of its development till its decline around 1500 BCE which are as follows -

1. Early stage (5500 BC to 3200 BC) - This was the initial stage of development of the Harappan civilization. At this time the sites of the early Harappan civilization such as Fort Gul Mohammad and Mehrgarh near Baluchistan came to the fore in the valley of the Indus River. By this time the people of this civilization had built mud houses and they had completely made agriculture the basis of their livelihood.
2. Pre-Harappan Phase (3200 BC to 2600 BC) - During this phase a large number of villages developed and the use of copper and wheels started. By this stage of the development of the Harappan civilization, other cities also developed in the plains, around which big walls were built. Foreign trade also started in this civilization in this phase itself.
3. Developed Harappan Phase (2600 BC to 1800 BC) - In this phase the Harappan civilization came to the fore in its most developed form. Many big cities were built during this time. The Harappans made strong bricks and developed urbanization began. A large number of seals were also manufactured at this time. The trade of Harappan civilization was now started with the civilization of Mesopotamia.
4. Later Harappan Phase (After 1800 BC) - It was the last phase of the Harappan Civilization in which the decline of the Harappan Civilization came to the fore. Gradually many sites related to the Harappan civilization began to disappear and many new cultures emerged, which were called North Harappan culture.

Important Sources; Archaeological remains of the civilization such as seals, pottery, sculptures, and buildings are one of the main sources of Indus Valley Civilization.

The Great Bath of Mohanjodaro


• The Great Bath: The Great Bath discovered at Mohenjo-Daro revealed that the people had attained a high level of perfection in the art of building. It has been suggested that the Great Bath was used for bathing during religious ceremonies. It is also suggested that perhaps a hierarchal structure existed in a society where the ruling class collected taxes to build structures for public use. 
• The Citadel: The cities of the civilization were divided into two parts – lower and upper. The elevated portion of the city is known as the citadel. Important buildings such as the Great Bath, granary, assembly halls and workshops were built in this part of the city. The citadel points towards an elaborate and efficient planning of the city which justifies that the Harappan Civilization was an urban civilisation. Presence of some houses on the elevated platform and some on the lower parts of the city indicates that perhaps society was divided into the ruling and ruled classes.
• Seals: About 2,000 seals were discovered from the sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Most of these seals were rectangular and square in shape. They bear the images of one-horned bull, goat, tiger, elephant and rhinoceros. The western part of the city was built on the higher platform known as citadel.These seals reveal the trade, religious beliefs and script of the people. The seal with an image of pashupati show that perhaps people believed in lord Shiva. Seals also tell us about the trading practices of the period. The discovered seals show that the Harappans were trading with other civilizations as many Harappan seals were found in Mesopotamia.
• Bearded Man and Dancing Girl: The discovery of the sculpture of a bearded man from Mohenjo-daro with a shawl worn over his left shoulder and half closed eyes is considered a sculpture of a yogi. This sculpture points towards the existence of skilled artisans in the Indus Valley Civilization. Similarly, the bronze sculpture of a dancing girl also indicates skilled craftsmanship.

• Cemeteries: The burials of people in the Indus Valley Civilization give us an idea about religious rituals, beliefs and practices of the people. These cemeteries were found in Lothal, Kalibangan and Rupar. Excavation of various goods such as animals, copper, shell spoons with the dead body indicates that perhaps people believed in life after death. 
• Dockyard: The Discovery of a rectangular dockyard at Lothal in Gujarat indicates that the people had maritime trade relations with other civilizations. 
• Script:  The Harappans used a pictographic script with signs representing birds, animals, fish and varieties of human forms. There are about 375–400 signs of the Harappan script.The Harappan script has not been deciphered till yet.

Origin of civilization

There has been a controversy since the beginning regarding the origin of the first urban civilization in the Indian subcontinent. The reason for this is the lack of necessary resource material in relation to this civilization. There are basically three different approaches to the explanation of the origin of this civilization

1. Mesopotamian origin: Scholars such as Mackay, Gordon, Kramer and Mortimer Wheeler first attempted to explain its origin in terms of Mesopotamian origin. Mortimer Wheeler believes that like idea even civilization has its wings. So, the elements of urbanism have directly been imported from Mesopotamia to Indus region. On the basis of analogy in wooden structure in Indus region. and that in Mesopotamia this theory was emphasized. Kosambi believes that the authors of Mesopotamian civilization, Egyptian civilization, & Harappan civilization, belong to the same stock. Likewise, H.D. Sankalia tried to find out the similarity between mounds like structure in Baluchistan with Ziggurats (temples) in Mesopotamia.

But in the light of later researches this concept got rejected because it is known that there is some fundamental difference between Mesopotamian civilization and Harappan civilization –

• We find the difference in the nature of town planning. For example, Harappan cities have been built on chess board pattern end the routes intersect each other at right angles. But Mesopotamian towns have been built in haphazard manner.
• In Harappa burnt bricks have been used on large scale. But in Mesopotamian civilisation baked bricks were in use.
• There were different type of seals and scripts used its Mesopotamia. and those in Harappa. For example, Indus seals were rectangular or square shaped but Mesopotamian seals were cylindrical.
• Indus script was pictographic while-Mesopotamian in script was cuneiform.
• We find clear evidence of temples in Mesopotamia but not under Harappan civilization.
• Religious structures of Mesopotamia were absent in IVC
• Indus seals were rectangular or square shaped but Mesopotamian seals were cylindrical.

2. Dravidian Origin: This theory was based on some similarity between Dravidian people and Indus people in religious perception the cult of mother 'Goddess', Lord Shiva, etc. Historians also argue that both Mesopotamian and Dravidian people were belonging to the Mediterranean race.  Although this theory also rejected later because Harappan Civilization was an urban civilization while Dravidian civilization was a rural culture. 

3. Theory of Aryan Origin: According to this theory Aryans were the founder of civilisation Argument in favour was that Sapta Saindhava region was even the core regions of Harappan civilisation. Likewise some scholars tried to trace out even the evidence of horse from Harappan sites. Argument against this view was the nature of Harappan civilisation and vedic civilisation , which was quite different from each other. Vedic civilisation was a rural civilisation on the other hand It ii app ii n civilisation was an urban one. 

4.  Gradual indigenous development: Another opposing view, but a valid one, is the concept of gradual indigenous origin. Representative historians of this theory were A. Ghosh, M.R. Mughal, Fair servis, G. Child. According to this, the emergence of the Harappan civilization was the result of the gradual development of the rural cultures of the north-west. Harappan civilization is a developed form of Amri-Nal culture, Sothi-Siswal culture and Kotdiji culture etc. During pre-Harappan phase, which started from 3500 B.C., we underline some specific development in this region. The people started to exploit the mines. The use of wheel started leading up to the development of better transportation as-well as the production of potteries. It Was during phase that the people came to the metal in the form of copper. Nomadic people were settled in high land of Baluchistan and in search of pasture land they used to travel form one region on another. In the process of social and technological integration a grater Indus Society developed.

Extent of Indus Valley Civilization

The Harappan civilization was not only one of the oldest civilizations in the world, but it was also much larger in size than the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations. This civilization extended from the plateau region of Balochistan to the Indus plain and the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in the east. The entire developed area is 12,99,600 sq km. It is 1600 km from east to west and 1400 km from north to south. About 1400 sites associated with Harappan civilization have come to light. Of these, about 6 or 7 sites are given the status of cities. It is bordered by Manda in the northern region of Jammu, Daimabad in the south, Sutkagedor in the west and Alamgirpur in the east. The remnants of this civilization are found in Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Uttar Pradesh of Pakistan and India.

• Sindh- Mohenjo Daro Chanhudaro, Juderjodaro, Amri, Kotdiji, Alimurad.and Rehman Dheri
• Balochistan- Sutkagedor, Sutkakoh, Balakot, Dabarkot, Ranan Ghund.,
• Afghanistan- Shortughai.
• Punjab- Harappa, Ropar, Bara, Sanghol.
• Haryana- Rakhigarhi, Mitathal, Banwali.
• Rajasthan- Kalibanga.
• Jammu- Manda.
• Ganga-Yamuna, Doab-Alamgirpur, Hulas.
• Gujarat- Deshalpur, Surkotda, Dhaulavira (Kutch state) Kathiawad-Rangpur, Rozdi, Lothal, Malvan (Surat) Bhagwatrao.

Characteristics: City/Town Planning

Construction of planned cities and buildings was the most highlighted and significant feature of Harappan Civilization. In other words, it was the first urban revolution in the Indian subcontinent and after the decline of this civilization, cities were not seen in India for about 1000 years. That’s why Gordan Child was the first to call it the Urban Revolution. Urbanization signifies the development of 'city-centred' civilization, unlike rural culture. The people of Indus civilization were skilled in building construction. In these sites, the remains of all types of buildings, small and large, have been found. 

If we take a look at the major Harappan cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Lothal and Kalibanga, we get clear picture of urabanism of that time- 

• There is uniformity in the construction of major cities although complete uniformity cannot be presumed as different cities were facing different geographical and environmental challenges.
• Generally, the city is divided into two parts: the Citadel and the lower town. The Citadel area was inhabited by the ruling class and some important buildings were built there, while the lower town was a residential area. Although Dholavira was divided in three parts: Citadel, The middle town and the lower town.
• The city was built in the shape of Chessboard. The main roads cut each other at right angles. Houses were built along the roads, which ranged from single storey to multi-storey.
• An important element that fascinates us in the town planning of the Harappan civilization is the advanced water management which was rare in contemporary civilizations. There was a network of drains in the city, there were brick paved drains on both sides of the road and streets. The drains of the houses met with the drains of the streets.
• In the excavation of Harappa city, the remains of grain store have been found in the citadel. The length of the granary was 18 meters and width were 7 meters.
• In these cities, a wall was built around it for protection. The wall was made of bricks.
• The construction of buildings was also done in a planned manner. Skylights and windows were also made for lighting. The kitchen, bathroom, courtyard and building were of many floors built by baked bricks. Exceptionally, raw brick was used in the construction of the house of Kalibanga.

Harrapan Administration / Political structure

The construction of roads and streets, water management, standard measurement and construction of bricks in Harappan civilization prove that there was an efficient governance system. But it was still a matter of dispute that what was the form of government under the Harappan civilization? Was it an empire or a group of small kingdoms? It is not possible to say anything final on this until the Harappan script is read. Nevertheless, many possibilities emerge in this regard:

• It is possible that it was a large empire which became possible through military-conquest.
• It is also possible that it was a group of many states which were at the same level of material development. But were located as, we see 16 Mahajanapadas in the Mahajanapada period.
• The presence of the fort area indicates the presence of a monarchy. But at the same time, we cannot deny the role of craftsmen and traders in administration.
• According to R. S. Sharma, the people of Indus civilization paid maximum attention to commerce and trade. Therefore, the rule of the Harappan civilization was probably in the hands of the "merchant class".
• According to some other scholars like Hunter, the governance system here used to run on a democratic system.

Social Life

Harappan society was based on a complex structure. A variety of economic, political and cultural activities could be seen in the Harappan cities. So, the groups of people involved in those activities were different. For example:

• The society of Indus civilization was divided into many classes on the basis of occupation such as – traders, priests, craftsmen and workers etc.
• The family of the harappan was matriarchal, this is estimated from the number of female idols found from excavations.
• Small and big houses have been found nearby in the excavation of Hadappa, which proves that there was no discrimination between the poor and the rich.
• Indus people used to eat both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food. Wheat, rice, barley, sesame and pulses were mainly consumed as vegetarian food.
• The Indus people used to do activities like hunting, singing, dancing and gambling for entertainment.
• Dice was the dominant game of this era.
• Fishing and bird hunting were regular activities. This activity was done for both entertainment and food.
• Looking at the activities of internal and external trade, the presence of a merchant class can be envisaged.
• The development of the art of writing shows the presence of an educated and clerical class.
• Massive economic activities and construction also indicate the presence of a large labor group.

Thus, the structure of the Harappan society was complex and this complexity is also expressed in their religious customs.

·    Harapan religion: 

• In Harappan religion, emphasis was on the worship of water, fire, trees, animals, fertility, Mother Goddess and Pashupati Shiva etc.
• Some of the common symbols found in Indus Valley artifacts include the pipal tree, the unicorn, and the Great Bath, which may have had religious significance.
• Some scholars have also suggested that the civilization may have practiced a form of ancestor worship, as many artifacts depict human figures in positions of worship.
• The people of Harappa used to worship the deities along with the mother goddess.
• Religious buildings were built for religious ceremonies. But the evidence of the temple is not available.
• There were many rituals in Harappan religion which were indirectly encouraging production. For example, the worship of fertility, the method of yagya, the worship of snakes.
• From the evidence of burial of dead bodies, we can say that the Harappan people believed the life after death.
• The people of this period also believed in ghosts and other superstitions. Amulets around children's necks indicate Tantrism.
• A seal has been found from Mohenjodaro on which a three-faced man in Padmasana posture is sitting in meditation, with three horns on his head, a rhinoceros and a buffalo on the left and an elephant and a tiger on the right. Two deer are sitting under the man It is considered to be the form of Pashupati Mahadev.

Economy and Trading 

The economic life of the Indus civilization was in a very advanced stage. The mainstays of economic life were agriculture, animal husbandry, crafts and trade.

• Agriculture was the main occupation of the life of the Saindhav inhabitants. The land of the Indus Valley was very fertile. The main food grains here were wheat and barley. Banana, coconut, pomegranate and watermelon were produced among the fruits. Evidence of cotton cloth has been found from Mohenjodaro and other places. From which it is clear that cotton was also cultivated here.
• Along with agriculture, animal husbandry also developed. On the basis of paintings done on Indus pottery, seals and fossils found, we can infer about their domestic animals and birds. They were familiar with bull, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig, dog, cat, donkey, camel, rhinoceros, tiger, deer etc. Some animals had religious beliefs and some were reared for meat. Evidence of raising elephants and horses has not been proved but horse bones were found from Surkotda in Gujarat.
• Apart from agriculture and animal husbandry, Saindhav residents also took interest in crafts and trade. They made pottery, metal vessels, tools and weapons, weaving and spinning, dyeing and other crafts. Ornaments making was also an occupation of the Indus Valley people. They made very fine-looking and artistic ornaments using gold, silver, precious stones, etc.
• Grain and raw materials were needed to meet the need of urban infrastructure. Therefore, these raw materials were imported from other regions of the Indian subcontinent and the region of West Asia and Central Asia. Hence, both internal and external trade was flourishing. They used to get gold from Mysore, bronze from Rajasthan, Balochistan and Madras, lead from Ajmer, precious stones from Kashmir and Kathiawar etc. Apart from this they also used to get raw material for their industries from countries like Afghanistan, Mesopotamia, Iran etc.
• Commercial trade is confirmed on the basis of the following factors-

1. Standard measurements and evidence of weights and scripts from various Harappan sites.
2. The acquisition of Harappan seals from the Persian Gulf and West Asia.
3. Finding a Harappan settlement in Afghanistan named Shortughai.
4. The Sumerian texts of the Sargon era provide important details in this regard. In the context of trade, three places – Meluha, Dilmun (Tilmun) and Magan (Makan) are mentioned. Among them 'Meluha' has been identified from Sindh Pradesh.

Art And Technology

Under the Indus civilization, we get to see a well-developed form of art. The rulers and rich merchants of this civilization were lovers of art and contributed substantially to its development.

• Sculpture - Stone, metal and clay idols are found in the excavation of the cities here. About a dozen stone sculptures are found from Mohenjodaro and two from Harappa. The best among them is the statue of a bearded monk, obtained from Mohenjodaro. In this idol the monk is depicted in a contemplative posture. Similarly, two semi-statues of men have been found from Harappa. Their body is muscular and knowledge of human body structure is obtained from these idols. The method of casting used in these metal idols has been called 'Lost Wax' in our ancient literature. From this, later the Nataraja statue of the south and the copper statue of the Buddha of Sultanganj were built.
• Seals: Mudras or seals have a special place under the Indus art, in which we see relief architecture. So far, more than two thousand seals have been found in various archaeological sites. Most of the seals are made of stone. Apart from this, there are also seals made of glassy soil, chert, gomate, clay etc. Most of the seals are square or square but some are also circular, cuboidal or cylindrical. The figures of man, animal, some trees etc. have been engraved on the seals. Among them there are animals like one horned animal, Taurus, rhinoceros, tiger, buffalo, deer, elephant, vakra, rabbit etc. The picture of a boat is found on a seal of Mohenjodaro and Lothal. A seal of 'Pashupati Shiva' has been found from Mohenjodaro. In this, Trimukhi Shiva is shown sitting in Padmasana posture on a post. 
• Pottery: Various sizes of pottery and their majority pieces have been found in the excavation. The pots are made of both chalk and hand. Handmade utensils are relatively rare. The pots were thoroughly cooked in the kilns. Large chambers for storing grains, water pitchers, jugs, jars, bowls, cups, saucers, axes, plates etc. are all found in the vessels.

• Ornaments- Apart from these artifacts, various types of jewelery have also been found from the sites of Indus civilization. These are of gold, silver, clay, stone etc. Among the main ornaments are Bhujvand, necklace, girdle, rings, earrings etc. A factory for making beads has also been found from Chanhudaro.
• Script - Most scholars have described the script of seals as Pictographic. Its approximately 400 characters are known. Script marks have clarity, detail and variety. Usually, it was written from right to left. But due to the unread of the script, very little is known about the intellectual side of the residents here.
• Geometry - Looking at the definite plan of construction of Saindhav buildings, it can be concluded that they must have been familiar with some principles of geometry. The scales of their weight-measures were fixed. There is a wonderful equality in the watts. Binary system was used in the measurement, according to which numbers up to 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64160, 320, 1600 and 3200 were employed. 16 or its multiples were used as weights. The people here were also familiar with the decimal system.
• Funeral Activities - The discoveries made by Mr. Wheeler from Harappa shed some light on the funeral rites of the residents here. An elaborate three-chambered cemetery (R37) has been found from here, which clearly proves that the practice of complete burial of the dead was in vogue. Usually only one person was buried in one grave. But there are also examples of one or three Joint Burials from Kalibangan and Lothal respectively.

Mesopotamian influence on the harappan civilization:  

The hypothesis that Indus Civilization was merely an extension or transfer of cultural pattern of Mesopotamian civilization but it is not tenable because Indus civilization borrowed nothing substantial from them. The essential and fundamental elements of Indus civilization differed from that of Mesopotamia. Though Mesopotamian civilization flourished around the same time period but it differed from Indus valley Civilization -

• The development of vigorous trade relations with west Asia suggest that the Harappan produced a very high-quality manufactured goods which must have taken a very long time to come into existence.
• Mesopotamians were ruled by a priest King while theory of Kingship or a ruler class has not been proved for Indus Valley.
• Mesopotamians also built temple for worship but Harappan people worshipped nature
• Grid pattern of town planning was altogether absent in Mesopotamian civilization.
• No similarities between the script of Indus civilization and that of west Asia.
• Irrigation system and other superior facts of the Sumerians are missing in Indus civilization.
• Cylindrical seals of Mesopotamian type are rare in Harappan civilization.

• Splendid tombs of Mesopotamian are not found in Harappan civilization.
• Tools & Weapon type of Mesopotamia was different and far superior to Harappan civilization.
• Canal irrigation known to Mesopotamia people was not practiced by the Harappan.

There might have been some exchange of ideas between occupants of Indus valley Civilization and Mesopotamian people. Later on flourishing indigenous crafts gave rise to thriving long-distance trade with western Asia but this did not bring about one-sided powerful cultural borrowings as was thought earlier.

Decline of Harappan Civilization

The explanation of the decline of the Harappan civilization has been a controversial issue since its inception. The reason for this is the lack of necessary sources. As we know that the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered while the archaeological evidence does not throw light on the political and social factors. Therefore, the decline of the Harappan civilization began to be explained in the context of various factors but still no single factor properly explains the decline of the Harappan civilization. These factors are:

• Aryan Invasion - Ramprasad Chandra and Gorden Child first gave the concept of Aryan invasion. Mackay, Wheeler and Piggatt are prominent among other supported scholars of this theory. Wheeler’s opinion is that Indra was the god of war of the Aryans and he has been called Purandara ‘The destroyer of forts.’ According to him Mohenjodaro was plundered and the people there were brutally murdered. He presents 26 skeletons found from Mohenjodaro and graveyard 'H' from Punjab as proof of this. As literary evidence, he presented the illustration of 'Harupiya' (Harappa) mentioned in the Rigveda. But the theory of Aryan invasion has been proved to be a product of imagination because the skeletons of Mohenjodaro are neither belong to same level nor the last level of this civilization.
• Flood in rivers - According to many scholars like Marshall, S. R. Rao, the rivers in which this civilization flourished were responsible for its downfall. The Harappan cities were situated on the banks of rivers which were flooded every year. The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro show that these cities were rebuilt several times. Each time the buildings were constructed on a higher level. Floods would have caused a lot of damage to the people every year and they would have been forced to leave their original residence and settle elsewhere.
• Diversion in the route of rivers – According to the opinion of some scholars, the main reason for the decline of civilization is the diversion of rivers and the drying up of the Ghaggar river. It is said that earlier both Sutlej and Yamuna were tributaries of Ghaggar but Sutlej turned towards Indus River and Yamuna towards Ganga. So, there was definitely a shortage of water. Now if we examine the above views, it appears that whether it is a flood or a tectonic disturbance or a change in the course of a river, it cannot be responsible for the decline of the entire civilization.
• Climate change - According to the opinion of scholars like Arel Stein and AN Ghosh the destruction of the Indus civilization was due to climate change. A botanist named Gurdeep Singh, by studying some plants taken from Sambhar, Didwana and Pushkar lakes in Rajasthan, has tried to establish that by about 1800 BC, the amount of rainfall in this region had reduced drastically. But recent research has rejected this concept.
• Environmental Factors - Fair Servis considered ecological imbalance as an important reason for the decline of this civilization and attributed this imbalance to the extensive exploitation of resources by the Harappans. A scholar named Vishnu Mitra also emphasized that excessive human interference in nature paved the way for the decline of this civilization. But we should also keep in mind that the Harappan civilization was spread over a wide area and different regions faced different climatic challenges. Also, the density of population at that time was only 6 persons per square mile. Therefore, environmental degradation alone cannot be considered as the sole reason for the decline of all sites.
• Decline in trade - Sirin Ratnagar has laid great emphasis on the decline of Mesopotamian trade and has described it as one of the main reasons for the decline of Harappan civilization. The main basis of the prosperity of the Indus cities was their trade with the Sumerian civilization of West Asia.This trade ended abruptly around 1750 BC. Due to this the urban form of the Indus civilization also ended and the signs of rural culture started becoming apparent in it. Wheeler has told that ancient large buildings were divided into smaller rooms and old bricks were used to build houses.
• Chemical explosion - According to a Russian scholar named M. Dmitriev, the destruction of the Indus civilization occurred through a sudden physico-chemical explosion in the environment.
• Earthquake - Looking at the devastation caused by the recent earthquake in Kutch and other parts of Gujarat some historians claimed that the destruction of Saindhav cities may have been caused by the wrath of the earthquake.

Before coming to any conclusion, it is necessary to remember that there is a difference in the nature of the fall of different sites and no single factor may have been responsible for the collapse of sites spread over such a wide area. Apart from this, the extent of these scholars and their opinions is that they have presented the decline of the Harappan civilization in the form of sudden demise whereas later researches have proved that this civilization did not disappear, but continued in a changed form.

Later Harappan Civilizations

The decline of the Harappan civilization does not mean the end of the civilization but the change in the form of the civilization.While the decline of the Harappan civilization limited the number of settlements in some areas (Punjab, Sindh and Bahawalpur), some other areas (Haryana and Gujarat) saw a wide expansion in the number of settlements. This was probably due to the migration of the population. By about 1900 BC, the Harappan cities started declining. But even after the decline of the cities, the Harappan civilization continued in a changed form. These cultures were:

• Cemetery 'H' Culture in western Punjab and Bahawalpur,
• Jhukar culture in Chanhudaro, Sindh
• Rangpur culture in Kutch and Kathiawar region of Gujarat
• Chalcolithic culture in different parts of India

Hence, Harappan people left their original place due to various reasons but those who had settled elsewhere from the Harappan sites tried to preserve some of the memories of their ancient civilization there. But they could not develop cities in the new places in the best way as they did in their original cities, they started living in small and rural settlements.

Contribution of Harappan civilization

We find the origin of most of the elements of later Indian civilization in this oldest civilization of India. The discovery of the Indus civilization has given a continuum to our history and has reached its antiquity to 3000-2500 BC.

• The male deity, whose existence is found in the Saindhav religion, has been accepted as the original form of Shiva of the historical period.
• Worship of female deities had a prominent place in the Sanghava religion. The developed form of this appears later in Hinduism.
• Evidence of Linga worship is found from here. Later in Hinduism, it was accepted as a symbol of Shiva.
• Evidence of tree worship is found in the Saindhav civilization. Over time we find that in both Buddhist and Hindu religions, Peepal was worshiped as sacred tree.
• Various animals had religious significance in the Indus civilization. Indus people considered Bull to be holy and worshiped them. Evidence of animal worship In Hindu religion later, Bull was considered to be worshiped by linking it with Shiva. Apart from this, snake worship is prevalent in Hinduism even today.
• The people of the Saindhava civilization considered water to be sacred and on the occasion of religious ceremonies, there was importance of mass bath. We also find these ceremonies in later Hinduism.
• The residents of Saindhav worshiped the symbols like Swastika, considering them sacred. Their pictures are found on the coins. Even today 'Swastika' is considered a sacred auspicious symbol in Hinduism.
• This civilization gave inspiration to the Indians for the fortifications and the construction of the ramparts. We also get the knowledge of setting up a city in a planned manner from the Harappan culture itself. Mauryan artists took the inspiration to build pillared buildings from the Indus civilization itself.
• Fully developed urban life originated from this civilization. Cities of that time placed emphasis on segregation of wastes at the source and closed drainage system, which can also be seen in present time.

Thus, the vast heritage of Harappan civilization can be seen in Indian culture. It is clear that in the Indus civilization only the cities ended, not the whole civilization. All the facts related to its social, economic, religious and rural life remained only residual, but they can be seen even today with more or less changes in the life of Indian people.